雅思阅读真题（Part 3）
语言多样性：普遍语法理论的挑战
本篇也叫：语言多样性、普遍语法、乔姆斯基普遍语法、语言的共性、语言普遍性、普遍语法理论
Part 3 · 考频：中频 · 最近考试：2024.12.14
本篇为雅思阅读真题（Part 3）《Language diversity》，共 14 题，2024.12.14雅思考试真题回忆，页面提供完整原文、题目、答案与解析，并支持在线机考模式免费练习。本页同时提供 Markdown 版本 供 AI 助手与搜索引擎直接读取。
文章讨论乔姆斯基提出的普遍语法理论及其面临的挑战。该理论认为所有语言有共同底层规则，但语言学家发现大量反例：澳大利亚原住民语言Arrernte有VC音节却无CV音节，老挝语没有形容词，北美萨利什语缺乏名词动词之分，递归能力也并非所有语言共有。
A
The concept of universal grammar is one of the most influential in the study of languages. (UG). It is widely interpreted as meaning that all languages are fundamentally the same and that the human brain is born language-ready, with an in-built program capable of interpreting the common rules underlying any mother tongue. It was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s. This notion persisted for five decades, influencing work in linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science. It implied that in order to understand language, you must ignore the vast diversity of languages and focus on their common human core.
B
Linguists have discovered numerous universal language rules since the UG theory was proposed. There are, however, almost always exceptions. It was once thought that if a language had syllables that started with a vowel and ended with a consonant (VC), it would also have syllables that started with a consonant and ended with a vowel. (CV). This universal lasted until 1999 when linguists discovered that Arrernte, a language spoken by Indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory around Alice Springs, has VC syllables but no CV syllables.
C
Other non-universal universals describe the fundamental rules of word formation. Consider the rule that every language has four fundamental word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Several languages lack an open adverb class, which means that new adverbs cannot be easily formed, unlike in English, where you can turn any adjective into an adverb, for example, 'soft' into 'softly'. Others, like Lao, which is spoken in Laos, have no adjectives at all. More controversially, some linguists argue that a few languages, such as Straits Salish, spoken by indigenous peoples in North America's northwestern regions, lack distinct nouns and verbs. Instead, they have a single- word class that includes events, objects, and qualities.
D
Even seemingly indisputable universals have been discovered to be deficient. This includes recursion, or the ability to infinitely place one grammatical unit inside a similar unit, such as 'Jack thinks that Mary thinks that ... the bus will be on time'. It is widely regarded as the most important feature of human language, distinguishing it from the communications of all other animals. However, Dan Everett of Illinois State University recently published controversial research demonstrating that Amazonian Piraha lacks this quality.
E
But what if language diversity is the key to understanding human communication? Linguists Nicholas Evans of the Australian National University in Canberra and Stephen Levinson of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, believe that languages do not follow the same set of rules. Instead, they argue that the sheer variety of human communication is a distinguishing feature not found in other animals. While there is no doubt that human thinking influences the shape of language, Evans and Levinson argue that language shapes our brains. This suggests that humans are more diverse than we previously thought, with differences in our brains depending on the language environment in which we grew up. And this leads to a disturbing conclusion: when a language dies, humanity loses an important piece of its diversity.
F
How are languages created if they do not follow a single set of shared rules? 'Instead of universals, you get standard engineering solutions that languages adopt repeatedly, and then you get outliers,' Evans says. He and Levinson contend that this is due to the fact that any given language is a complex system shaped by a variety of factors such as culture, genetics, and history. They claim that there are no absolutely universal language traits, only tendencies. And the 'bio-cultural' mix that we call language is characterized by a mix of strong and weak tendencies.
G
The strong tendencies, according to the two linguists, explain why many languages exhibit common patterns. A variety of factors, such as brain structure, speech biology, and communication efficiencies, tend to push language in a similar direction. Widely shared linguistic elements may also be based on a uniquely human type of reasoning. For example, most languages use these grammatical categories because we perceive the world before we learn to speak as a place full of things causing actions (agents) and things having actions done to them (patients).
H
Weak tendencies, on the other hand, are explained by language idiosyncrasies. Evans and Levinson argue that many aspects of a population's natural history can influence its language. For example, Andy Butcher of Flinders University in Adelaide, South Australia, has discovered that indigenous Australian children have by far the highest incidence of chronic middle-ear infection of any population on the planet and that most indigenous Australian languages lack many sounds that are common in other languages but are difficult to hear when one has a middle-ear infection. According to Evans, it is unknown whether this condition shaped the sound systems of these languages, but it is important to consider the idea.
I
Levinson and Evans are not the first to question the theory of universal grammar, but no one has summarized and spread these ideas as effectively. As a result, their arguments have sparked widespread interest, particularly among linguists tired of trying to fit their findings into the straitjacket of "absolute universals." According to some, this is the final nail in UG's coffin. Michael Tomasello, co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, has long argued that all languages follow the same set of rules. 'Universal grammar is extinct,' he claims.
想在线练习这套卷子？进入机考练习
答案：NOT GIVEN
答案：TRUE
原文定位：And this leads to a disturbing conclusion: when a language dies, humanity loses an important piece of its diversity
同义替换：「disappear」↔「dies」，「The human race may be affected」↔「humanity loses an important piece of its diversity」
答案：FALSE
原文定位：Evans and Levinson argue that language shapes our brains;differences in our brains depending on the language environment in which we grew up
同义替换：「affect」↔「shapes」，「how a person develops」↔「the language environment in which we grew up」
答案：TRUE
原文定位：This notion persisted for five decades, influencing work in linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science
同义替换：「in the latter half of the 20th century」↔「five decades」，「theory」↔「notion」，「predominated」↔「persisted」
答案：TRUE
原文定位：More controversially, some linguists argue that a few languages, such as Straits Salish;lack distinct nouns and verbs
同义替换：「disagree」↔「controversially」，「a particular point」↔「lack distinct nouns and verbs」
答案：FALSE
原文定位：Linguists have discovered numerous universal language rules since the UG theory was proposed. There are, however, almost always exceptions;Even seemingly indisputable universals have been discovered to be deficient;They claim that there are no absolutely universal language traits, only tendencies
同义替换：「guidelines」↔「rules」，「put forth」↔「proposed」，「do hold true for all human languages」↔「almost always exceptions」
答案：It is presented in an effective manner.
原文定位：Levinson and Evans are not the first to question the theory of universal grammar, but no one has summarized and spread these ideas as effectively
同义替换：「theory」↔「ideas」，「presented in an effective manner」↔「summarized and spread these ideas as effectively」
答案：the potential origin of something.
原文定位：It is unknown whether this condition shaped the sound systems of these languages, but it is important to consider the idea
同义替换：「middle-ear infection」↔「condition」，「serve」↔「explain」，「the potential origin of something」↔「shaped the sound systems」
答案：similar ways of perceiving
原文定位：Widely shared linguistic elements may also be based on a uniquely human type of reasoning. For example, most languages use these grammatical categories because we perceive the world before we learn to speak
同义替换：「could be caused by」↔「because」，「apparent similarities between languages」↔「widely shared linguistic elements」
答案：The development of every language occurs independently.
原文定位：He and Levinson contend that this is due to the fact that any given language is a complex system shaped by a variety of factors such as culture, genetics, and history;They claim that there are no absolutely universal language traits, only tendencies
同义替换：「occurs independently」↔「shaped by a variety of factors such as culture, genetics, and history」，「every」↔「any given」
答案：to describe different points of view on language's nature.
原文定位：The concept of universal grammar is one of the most influential in the study of languages;Levinson and Evans are not the first to question the theory of universal grammar
同义替换：「different points of view」↔「the theory of universal grammar」
答案：the most fundamental feature is language.
原文定位：However, Dan Everett of Illinois State University recently published controversial research demonstrating that Amazonian Piraha lacks this quality
同义替换：「asserted」↔「published」
答案：words that fit a specific grammar pattern.
原文定位：Others, like Lao, which is spoken in Laos, have no adjectives at all
同义替换：「deficiencies」↔「have no adjectives at all」
答案：a series of noises that UG predicted.
原文定位：This universal lasted until 1999 when linguists discovered that Arrernte, a language spoken by Indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory around Alice Springs, has VC syllables but no CV syllables
同义替换：「a series of noises」↔「syllables」